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Defination vocabulary
VOCABULARY
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Kelas : II C Pagi
Prodi : Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
Mata Kuliah : Vocabulary
Dosen : Rita Harisma S.Pd., M.Hum.
FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU
PENDIDIKAN
UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH SUMATERA
UTARA
MEDAN
2015/2016
A.
Definition
of vocabulary
Vocabulary
is a basic component in communication. Vocabulary is also very important for
the acquisition process. If acquires do not recognize the meaning of the key
word use by those who addressed them, they will be unable to participate in
conversation.Vocabulary is the collection of words that an individual knows
(Linse,2005:121). There are some experts who give definitions of vocabulary.
Hatch and Brown (1995:1) define that vocabulary as a list of words for a
particular language or a list or set of word that individual speakers of
language might use. Furthermore, in Webster Dictionary (1985:1073), vocabulary
is define as a list or collection of words usually alphabetically arranged and
explained or lexicon, stock of words use in language or by class, individual,
etc. While according to Roget (1980:1036), vocabulary is:
a.
A list of words often defined
or translated.
b.
All the words of Language.
c.
Specialized expression which
are indigenous to a particular field, subject, trade or subculture.
Vocabulary
is an important aspect in teaching language, as stated by Edward (1997:149),
“Vocabulary is one of the important factors in all language teaching; students
must continually learn words as they learn structure and as they practice sound
system”. Sometimes, it’s difficult to determine the words that students related
to vocabularies such as: meaning, spoken/written forms, collocations,
connotatons, grammatical behavior, etc.(Linse,2005:121). According to Richards (2002:255), vocabulary is the core component of
language proficiency and provides much of the basis for how well learners
speak, listen, read, and write. Jackson and Amvela (2000:11) say that the terms
of vocabulary, lexis, and lexicon are synonymous.Vocabulary is one of the
language components that can affect macro skills. Some definition of vocabulary
is proposed by some experts. Nunan
(1999: 101) states that vocabulary is a list of target language words.
Furthermore, Jackson and Amvela (2000: 11) say that the terms
vocabulary, lexis, and lexicon are synonymous. In addition, Richards and
Schmidt (2002:580) state that vocabulary is a set of lexeme, including single
words, compound words, and idioms.Vocabulary is the total number of words in a
language; all the words known to a person or used in a particular book,
subject, etc; a list of words with their meaning, especially one that
accompanies a textbook (Hornby,1995: 1331). Those definitions show that
vocabulary is the first element that the English learners should learn in order
to master English well besides the other English components and skills. Talking
about vocabulary, Lehr, Osborn, and Hiebert (in Kamil and Hiebert, 2005: 2-3)
define vocabulary as knowledge of words and words meaning in both oral and
print language and in productive and receptive forms. More specifically, they
use it to refer to “the kind of word that students must know to read
increasingly demanding text with comprehension.” Harmer (1991: 158) summarizes
that knowing a word (vocabulary) means knowing about meaning, word use, word formation,
and word grammar.
B. Types of vocabulary
There
are some types of vocabulary as stated by Nation (1990), Aeborsold and Field
(1997). They are active or productive vocabulary and passive or receptive
vocabulary.
Active
or productive vocabulary refers to language items which learner can use
appropriately in speaking or writing (Aeborsold and Field,1977:139). It is line
with Nation (2003:25) who states that productive vocabulary refers to the words
that students can pronounce, spell and write. It involves how to use the words
in grammatical pattern.
Examples of
active or productive vocabulary:
·
Flowers
·
Sun
·
Wind
·
Heart
·
Soul
·
(times) advance, etc.
Passive
or receptive vocabulary refers to language items that can be recognized and
understood in the context of reading or listening (Aeborsold and Field, 1977).
This receptive vocabulary, as stated by Nation (1990), refers to the words that
students can be organized when they are heard and they are expected to be able
to distinguish a word which has similar sound.
Examples of
passive or receptive vocabulary:
·
Heart
·
Soul
·
Nautical, etc.
From
the explanation above, it can be concluded that there are different types of
vocabulary, this is relevant to the fact that people have different ways in
understanding words in terms of visual, aural, oral and written words. Not all words suit
that are neede by the learners, so vocabulary selection is important to be
considered to teach learners and these criteria for vocabulary selection will
be discussed below.
In
addition to the two type of vocabulary there are four types of vocabulary.
There are 4 types of
vocabulary:
Ø Listening
Ø Speaking
Ø Reading
Ø Writing
The
first two constitute spoken vocabulary and the last two, written vocabulary.Children
begin to acquire listening and speaking vocabularies many years before they
start to build reading and writing vocabularies. Spoken language forms the
basis for written language. Each type has a different purpose and, luckily,
vocabulary development in one type facilitates growth in another.
Ø Listening Vocabulary:
The
words we hear and understand. Starting
in the womb, fetuses can detect sounds as early as 16 weeks. Furthermore, babies are listening during all
their waking hours – and we continue to learn new words this way all of our
lives. By the time we reach adulthood,
most of us will recognize and understand close to 50,000 words.(Stahl,1999;
Tompkins, 2005) Children who are completely deaf do not get exposed to a
listening vocabulary. Instead, if
they have signing models at home or school, they will be exposed to a “visual”
listening vocabulary. The amount of
words modeled is much less than a hearing child’s incidental listening
vocabulary.
Ø Speaking Vocabulary:
The
words we use when we speak. Our speaking
vocabulary is relatively limited: Most
adults use a mere 5,000 to 10,000 words for all their conversations and
instructions.This number is much less than our listening vocabulary most likely
due to ease of use.
Ø Reading Vocabulary:
The
words we understand when we read text.
We can read and understand many words that we do not use in our speaking
vocabulary. This is the 2nd largest vocabulary IF you are a reader. If you are not a reader, you can not “grow”
your vocabulary.
Ø Writing Vocabulary:
The
words we can retrieve when we write to express ourselves. We generally find it easier to explain
ourselves orally, using facial expression and intonation to help get our ideas
across,then to find just the right words to communicate the same ideas in
writing. Our writing vocabulary is
strongly influenced by the words we can spell. for example:
- if there are a number of synonyms, a writer will have his own preference as to which of them to use.
- he is unlikely to use technical vocabulary relating to a subject in which he has no knowledge or interest.
C. How to expand vocabulary
1. Read, read, and read.
The
more you read especially novels and literary works, but also magazines and
newspapers the more words you'll be exposed to. As you read and uncover new
words, use a combination of attempting to derive meaning from the context of
the sentence as well as from looking up the definition in a dictionary.
2. Keep a dictionary and thesaurus
handy.
Use
whatever versions you prefer in print, software, or online. When you uncover a
new word, look it up in the dictionary to get both its pronunciation and its
meaning(s). Next, go to the thesaurus and find similar words and phrases -- and
their opposites (synonyms and antonyms, respectively) and learn the nuances
among the words.
3. Use a journal.
It's
a good idea to keep a running list of the new words you discover so that you
can refer back to the list and slowly build them into your everyday vocabulary.
Plus, keeping a journal of all your new words can provide positive
reinforcement for learning even more words especially when you can see how many
new words you've already learned.
4.
Learn
a word a day.
Using
a word a day calendar or Website or developing your own list of words to learn
is a great technique many people use to learn new words. This approach may be
too rigid for some, so even if you do use this method, don't feel you must
learn a new word every day.(Find some word a day, websites at the end of this
article.)
5.
Go
back to your roots.
One
of the most powerful tools for learning new words and for deciphering the
meaning of other new words is studying Latin and Greek roots. Latin and Greek
elements (prefixes, roots, and suffixes) are a significant part of the English
language and a great tool for learning new words. (Follow these links for the
sections of this site that provide English Vocabulary Derived from Latin and
English Vocabulary Derived from Greek.)
6.
Play
some games.
Word
games that challenge you and help you discover new meanings and new words are a
great and fun tool in your quest for expanding your vocabulary. Examples
include crossword puzzles, anagrams, word jumble, Scrabble, and Boggle. (Find
some word-game Websites at the end of this article.)
7.
Engage
in conversations.
Simply
talking with other people can help you learn discover new words. As with
reading, once you hear a new word, remember to jot it down so that you can
study it later and then slowly add the
new word to your vocabulary.
D.
How
to teaching vocabulary
v
Focus on vocabulary
Give
vocabulary a high profile in the syllabus and the classroom so that students
can see its importance and understand that learning a language isn’t just about
learning grammar (O’Dell 1997). It may be worth
teaching students an easier formulation of
Wilkins’s (1972) view that “without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.”
One
of the first vocabulary learning strategies for any classroom is
how to ask for words you don’t know in English, and
how to ask the meaning of English words you
don’t understand, so phrases like “What’s the word for in English?,” “How do
you say ?,” and “What does mean?”
are useful to teach at the basic levels. As
students progress, another useful strategy they
can use is to paraphrase: “It’s a kind of,”
“It’s like a,” and “It’s for -ing X” etc. Focusing on these strategies
puts vocabulary learning firmly on the classroom agenda.
An
important vocabulary acquisition strategy which Nation (2001) calls “noticing”
is seeing a word as something to be learned. In this view, knowing what to
learn is a necessary prerequisite to learning. Teachers can help learners get
into the habit of noticing by making clear in classroom instruction and
homework assignments: which items should be learned, what each item is (a
single word, a phrase, a collocation etc.) and for what purpose (active use or
passive recognition). And materials can help teachers in this in the following
ways:
ü Providing clearly marked vocabulary lessons
ü Making the target vocabulary set stand out, including focused
practice and regular review
ü Giving lists of vocabulary to be learned for the lesson
Structured
vocabulary notebook exercises which are designed to make students focus on a
particular vocabulary set or feature are a good way of developing this noticing
strategy.
v Offer variety
Tomlinson
(1998) suggests a number of principles for developing successful materials. The
first of these is that “Materials should achieve impact.” He
suggests that this can be done with unusual and
appealing content,attractive presentations,
and variety. Teachers can use different ways to present vocabulary including pictures, sounds, and different text types with
which students can identify: stories, conversations, web pages, questionnaires,
news reports,etc. In each of these contexts, topics should be relevant to
students’ interests.
Similarly,
practice activities should vary and engage students at different levels.
These should range from simple listen-and-repeat
type of practice through controlled practice
to opportunities to use the vocabulary in meaningful, personalized ways. Offering variety also means catering to different learning styles,and
as Tomlinson notes, some students may use different
learning styles for different types of language or in different learning
situations. So this means offering activities that sometimes appeal to learners
who are more “studial” and “analytic” (those
who need to analyze the language and to be accurate in their use of it) as well as learners who are
“experiential” and “global” (those who are
less concerned with accuracy as with learning whole chunks of language) and catering to students who prefer to learn either by seeing, hearing,
or doing something.
v Repeat and recycle
Learning
vocabulary is largely about remembering, and students generally need to see,
say, and write newly learned words many times before they can be said
to have learned them. Some researchers have
suggested various numbers of encounters with
a word for learning to take place, ranging from five to up to twenty [see, e.g., Nation (1990); Rott (1999); Ghadirian
(2002)]. Some suggest that an impressive amount of learning can take place when students learn lists of paired items (English word and translation equivalents);
others suggest
that this
method of
learning does
not aid deeper understanding
of the words or help develop fluency.
However,
most agree that repetition is an important aid to learning and that having to actively recall or
“retrieve” a word is a more effective way of
learning than simple exposure or just seeing a word over and over (Sökmen 1997). Researchers also agree that repeating
words aloud helps students remember words
better than repeating them silently. Another area of research is how long students can remember words after
first learning them, and again researchers
agree that forgetting mostly occurs immediately after we first learn something, and that the rate of forgetting
slows down afterward [see Gu (2003)]. The
implications for the vocabulary classroom are self-evident:
Review vocabulary as often
as possible in activities that have students actively
recall words and produce
them rather than merely see or hear them.
v Provide opportunities to organize vocabulary
Organizing
vocabulary in meaningful ways makes it easier to learn (Schmitt 1997; Sökmen
1997). Textbooks often present new vocabulary in thematic sets
as an aid to memory, but there are other types of
organization and these can be described
under three broad headings: real-world groups, language-based groups, and personalized groups, examples of which are
given below.
§ Real-world groups occur in
the real world, such as the countries within each continent, parts of the body,
the foods in each food type (carbohydrate, protein, fats, etc.), activities
that take place for a celebration (e.g., at a wedding), expressions people
typically use in everyday situations (e.g., when someone passes an examination,
has bad luck, etc.). Students can draw on their general knowledge to group
English vocabulary according to concepts with which they are already familiar.
§ Language-based groups draw on
linguistic criteria as ways of grouping, for example, the different parts of
speech of a word family; words that have the same prefix or suffix, or the same
sound; verbs and dependent prepositions; collocations of different kinds (verb
+ noun; adjective + noun, etc.).
§ Personalized groups use
students’ own preferences and experiences as the basis for the groups. It might
include grouping vocabulary according to likes and dislikes, personal habits or
personal history, for example, foods that you like and don’t like, or eat
often, sometimes, rarely, or that you ate for breakfast, lunch, and dinner
yesterday. Making vocabulary personal helps to make it more memorable.
There
are many different ways of practicing newly presented vocabulary in class, from
repeating the words, controlled practice, or reacting to the content in some
way, to using the vocabulary to say true things about oneself. For example, in
learning the vocabularyof countries, students can:
i.
Listen to the names of
countries and repeat them
ii.
Identify the countries
they know in English, and add new ones
iii.
Say which languages people
speak in different countries
iv.
Say which countries are
near their own, or which they have personal connections with (I’m from . . .
; My brother lives in . . . ,etc.), or which they would like to visit
At
this point, a useful step is to take time to organize the new vocabulary in
some way that allows students to “notice” and bring together the target words
as the basis for a communicative activity or to have a clear record for review
purposes, or both. Students often write translations above new words in their
textbook and these can be spread around the page; an organizing activity like
the one shown in Figure 8 helps systematize their note taking and provides
further personalized practice.
v Make vocabulary learning personal
Related
to the point above, materials should provide opportunities for students to use
the vocabulary meaningfully, to say and write true things about themselves
and their lives. Students should be encouraged to
add vocabulary they want to learn, too. And
if the experience of learning is also enjoyable, so much the better! One note of caution is that personalization
may be more appropriate for some students
than others. In a large study of vocabulary learning strategies used by students at different ages, Schmitt (1997)
reports that younger (junior high school)
students found that personalization was less helpful to them than the older students in university and adult classes.
v Don’t overdo it!
Another
important point is not to overload students – there are limits to how much
vocabulary anyone can absorb for productive use in one lesson and this
will be affected by how “difficult” the words are
and how much students are required to know
about them [on the notion of difficulty, see Laufer (1997)]. If vocabulary sets ever seem too daunting for students,
allow them to choose which items they want
to prioritize.
v Use strategic vocabulary in class
Since
the classroom may be the main or only place that students hear or use English,
it’s important to include in lessons the strategic vocabulary,as it makes up so
much of spoken vocabulary. If the
textbook doesn’t include this as part of the syllabus or contain presentation
and practice activities,
it will be up to the teacher as the most experienced user of English to find
ways to introduce this type of vocabulary in class. It might be useful here to
look at the different types of talk that happen in classrooms, which Walsh
(2006) divides into four “modes”: managerial, materials, skills and systems,
and classroom context, each of which has different teaching aims and can
include different functions.
-
Managerial mode refers to the way teachers organize the class and move between
activities. In doing this, it’s possible to use a range of basic discourse
markers for starting, concluding, and changing topics, such as All
right/Okay, So, Let’s start, Let’s move on.
Although
Walsh sees this type of talk primarily as the teacher’s, as the one who
organizes and manages what happens in the classroom, there are aspects of
managerial talk that students can usefully learn to help them organize pair and
group work (OK,let’s change roles; That’s it, we’re finished), or to
interact with the teacher in order to change the way the class proceeds (Could
you explain that again, please?).
-
Materials mode refers to the talk that takes place when teachers and students
are doing an activity in the materials. This includes eliciting answers from
students, checking and explaining answers, and giving feedback on answers. In
this type of talk, it would be useful for teachers to model different kinds of
responses when evaluating students’ answers (That’s right; Excellent)
and when seeking clarification (You mean . . . ?; He went where?).
-
Skills and systems
mode is the largely teacher-directed talk that goes on when the
teacher is trying to get students to use a particular language item or skill
and will involve the teacher in giving feedback, explaining, and correcting. In
this mode teachers can model phrases for reformulation (I mean . . .)
and for organizing and staging information (Now, . . . First of all, . . .).
-
Classroom context
mode refers to the type of language learners use when they are
talking about their personal experience or feelings – sometimes called “freer
practice activities.” Here the teacher’s role is to listen and support the
interaction, which is the most like casual conversation that learners will
engage in. Teachers can support these “conversations” by teaching all the types
of strategic vocabulary, in order to help students manage their own talk,
relate to other students respond, and manage the conversation as a whole.
See
also McCarthy and Walsh (2003) for an overview of the four modes and the ways
that teachers can teach and promote natural conversational language in class.
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